Monday, 1 April 2013

Week 13: Session 12 - Presentation Week 2



This week was our last week of TWC, and the final week for group presentations. Some very interesting topics were discussed this session.

The first group did their project on transportation technologies. They started off their presentation with a video. It really caught my attention, and I thought it was very well made. The group went into great detail with regard to the past, present, and future of various transportation technologies. I found the concept of vacuum trains very interesting. I think the development of such trains would revolutionize transportation to a great extent. The thought of being able to travel not only between countries, but also across continents, in a drastically shorter time than possible now, is very exciting. They also talked about teleportation, which I have undeniably wished for on several occasions. With the pace of developments in today’s world, teleportation may not just be a fantasy in the future, but could become a reality. However, on the downside, this technology could give rise to various ethical issues in terms of immigration policies, misuse by fugitives and others, and so on. The more you think about it, the less viable it seems without some sort of regulation to control its use. Overall, I found the group’s website interesting and well-designed.

The next group presented on 3D printing. It seems like a very convenient technology to own and use, and has environmental benefits as well, in terms of reducing wastage. 3D printing uses an additive process rather than a subtractive process (like similar technology that is currently in use), as discussed in one of our earlier sessions, and this will help reduce wastage of materials. Moreover, it is convenient because it enables you to print anything you want in the comfort of your home, also enabling you to customize things to your liking, and save on transportation costs. It could also increase trade and efficiency as it would enable various products to be produced at the site where they are utilized, thereby saving on transportation costs, promoting fuel efficiency and sustainability. 3D printers could also solve the problem of inequality; once designs are created, they can be downloaded and printed anywhere in the world. This technology could be put to some rather interesting applications.

The third group based their website on ‘seasteading’ as a solution to the problem of a lack of space in Singapore. Seasteading is basically the creation of human settlements on the sea or ocean. The group talked about the construction features, convenience, other benefits and feasibility of the technology that would make this possible. However, they also highlighted the fact that there may be certain challenges to overcome. These seasteads would generate a lot of pollutants which would be released into the atmosphere or dumped into the ocean, as there is no other means of disposal. Quite obviously, this would have adverse effects on marine life and ecosystems. There may also be several legal implications, but seasteading is definitely a possibility in the future. On the whole, I found their presentation very informative; and the video that they concluded with was hilarious.

The last group presented on Powered Exoskeletons. Such technology is of great use to the military, and for medical and industrial purposes. I think design is very crucial for this technology. The exoskeletons would need to be light, yet powerful, and flexible so as not to restrict movement. As beneficial as they could be, there are still certain concerns that must be dealt with. This technology could involve a high maintenance cost, and it’s very important to consider safety issues. Moreover, ethical issues may arise when such technology falls into the wrong hands and is abused. This brings us back to the fact that technology is a “double-edged-sword”, and its effects depend on how and by whom it is used.

I found the presentations this week not only informative and interesting, but also very entertaining.

I rate the session an 8 out of 10.

Wednesday, 27 March 2013

Week 12: Session 11 - Presentation Week 1



This week was the first of two weeks of group presentations. 

The first group presented their website on stealth technology. I thought it was a very interesting topic. The group mainly focused on how stealth technology is used in the army. The concept of stealth technology is basically to be able to evade detection systems, thereby being undetected. The technologies that they presented on were aimed at deception tactics rather than all out invisibility.

Although such technology is widely used in the military and has wide applications in this field, there is possibility of such technology eventually being used by civilians as well.

This might give rise to innumerable ethical concerns as the technology can be abused and used for spying, stalking, and other questionable purposes. There may also be legal implications in terms of whether information obtained through stealth can be produced in a court of law.

Overall, I thought their topic and web-report were interesting and well-designed.

The second group’s website was based on environmental sustainability in Singapore. They talked about many green efforts that are already being made in Singapore, in order to make it a greener city. This was quite surprising to me as I hadn’t heard of these movements and programs before. They used a lot of case studies of green buildings from all over the world, which were interesting; however, I would have liked to see more about relevant future considerations, other possible technologies, and black-swan events/technologies in the field of environmental sustainability in Singapore.

The next group presented on cloud computing. Their website showed how different cloud computing services are used in different organizations such as schools, hospitals, and so on. The use of cloud technology makes it easy to access and upload data, and provides benefits such as cost savings and efficiency. They also highlighted how a shift to the cloud could promote sustainable development by using less energy (Can it??).

They talked about how cloud technology has the potential to solve the problem of inequality to a certain extent, through the spreading of knowledge online. There are many websites that offer courses from reputed Universities online, that enable people who don’t have access to such knowledge to study these courses online for free.

Although cloud technology has many benefits, it also gives rise to privacy concerns and other such issues, which highlight the importance of implementing necessary safeguards to protect the privacy of people.

The last group to present was my group; and the topic we chose was aesthetic surgery. In our project, we talked about the advancements in aesthetic surgery. We went over the reasons why we thought it brought about disruptive change, and also looked into the future of this technology with respect to further advancements, applications and possible wild card events.

Based on the feedback that we received on our presentation, we could have talked more about the legal and ethical implications of aesthetic surgery.

We are currently working on improving our website, but you can access it for more information on aesthetic surgery here: http://keming91.wix.com/beautyondemand

This session was useful for us to learn interesting things about the topics that were presented by the project groups. 

I rate the session an 8 out of 10.

Final Version: Individual Topical Review Paper



CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION: THE EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY[1]
Namratha Udayakumar
(namrathau.2012@business.smu.edu.sg), Technology and World Change (G20), 1st year student, Bachelor of Business Management, Lee Kong Chian School of Business

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:

In world where brutal crimes are a regular occurrence, the forensics divisions of police departments play a major role in bringing criminals to justice. From time immemorial, the police have had various methods of convicting criminals. Though investigators primarily relied on their intuitive theories in the early days, such an approach is insufficient at present. This paper focusses on how the evolution of technology in forensics has helped improve the investigation of crime scenes; from ancient times when there were no established methods of evidence collection and processing, and technologies to aid these processes, to present day scenarios where there are innumerable methods to investigate every possible piece of evidence from a crime scene.

INTRODUCTION:

According to Merriam-Webster, ‘Forensics’ is defined as “the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems; especially : scientific analysis of physical evidence (as from a crime scene)” (“Forensic”, 2013). In other words, it “is the science of gathering evidence to support the facts related to a criminal investigation” (Sexton, n.d, para. 1).
Forensic investigators have the job of collecting and documenting evidence from crime scenes, analysing it, and identifying possible suspects involved. Such investigations aim at establishing details such as the approximate time and cause of death, weapons used, identities of people involved, and all the facts needed to tie lose ends together and zero-in on those guilty of committing the crime. This information is used by legal authorities either to clear the names of innocent suspects or to convict those who are guilty. 
Forensic technology is used in relation to various crimes involving murder, bombings, arson, and so on. However, this paper will focus mainly on murder (homicide) investigations, and the technology used therein.
Homicide investigations go through various stages: 
(i)                 Arriving at the Scene:

When investigators arrive at the scene, the first thing that is done is a walkthrough, so that they get an overview of the crime scene. This is done before the body or any evidence has been touched or moved. The crime scene is then documented as it was found (National Institute of Justice, 2009a).

(ii)               Documenting the Scene:

Photographing the scene serves as a permanent record and can be used to recreate the crime scene, and also used in other investigations. Photographs of the crime scene should be complemented by written documentation, in order to provide for more accurate records. It is important for the scene to be thoroughly documented in its original state, before being released for the collection of evidence (National Institute of Justice, 2009c).

(iii)             Evaluating the body:

Evidence collection begins with an on-site examination of the body, to determine the exact location in the scene, where the victim died. This is then compared to the location where the victim’s body is found. This is done by analysing physical evidence, drag marks, blood spatter, any signs of struggle, and so on (National Institute of Justice, 2009c). Sometimes, it is possible that the victim was killed elsewhere, and the body was later transported and placed at the scene. Investigators must look for signs indicating this possibility as well.

(iv)             Evidence Collection:

Evidence at the scene, such as hair, fibres, blood samples, articles belonging to the victim or suspects, and others, must be carefully collected and preserved, so that it can be used in future investigations, and can also be produced for legal purposes(National Institute of Justice, 2009c).

(v)               Interviewing Witnesses:

It is important to collect personal information from witnesses, for identification purposes, information regarding their relationship with the victim, how they discovered the death, and any other statements. Their stories are then analysed to check if they match up to theories based on crime-scene evidence. Moreover, the statements of witnesses can be used to establish a sequence of events when certain aspects of the case are not known, or if evidence is insufficient (National Institute of Justice, 2009c).

(vi)             Establishing a Profile of the Deceased:

It is also important to develop a profile of the victim. This is done to establish the victim’s condition before death, with respect to his/her medical history, mental health, and social history, in order to determine the possible cause of death, and the circumstances surrounding it (National Institute of Justice, 2009b).
The evidence from the scene, along with other background information collected from witnesses and people known to the victim, help to establish a sequence of events, and link possible suspects to the homicide, finally revealing the identities of those guilty of the crime.
The technology used to gather such information has been evolving over the years, enabling higher levels of accuracy, reliability, and ease of operation. This paper aims to trace the developments in forensic technology that have been used in crime scene investigation.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:

In the past, it was not common for a very “methodical” investigation of crime scenes.
Investigations would be conducted based on whatever evidence was clearly available, as they lacked the means to look into the details of the crime scene, with respect to trace evidence, gunshot residue, hair and fibres, and so on.
Investigators did not have much to work with and the techniques they used were quite primitive. They did not know how to collect evidence, or process it, to deduce information about the crime scenes. The conviction of criminals largely relied on confessions, and testimonies by witnesses.
Quite often, it was very likely that people would be wrongfully convicted despite evidence being insufficient to prove their guilt, and other times when the guilty were allowed to walk free due to the inability to draw accurate conclusions from the available evidence.
However, with the passage of time, various developments, discoveries, and inventions took place, which provided a basis for the technology that is in use today. Some of these include:

(i)                 13th Century:

One of the first known developments in the field of forensics came about in 1248, when a Chinese forensic expert, Song Ci, wrote a book called ‘Xi Yuan Ji Lu’ (Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified). This was the first book about how crimes were solved using forensics. It explained the basis of distinguishing drowning from strangulation, and how to determine whether it was homicide, suicide, or an accidental event that led to the death of a victim (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.).

(ii)               18th Century:

Starting from 1784 investigators began the physical matching of evidence from the crime scene, with suspects or their possessions, in order to identify those who were guilty (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.).

(iii)             19th Century:

The year 1837, saw the beginning of bullet matching, where bullets from crime scenes were matched with firearms possessed by suspects. Henry Goddard of London’s first police force, the Bow Street Runners, was the first to use this technique. Around the mid-19th Century, arsenic was one of the most common poisons used to kill individuals. However, there was a lack of reliable methods to test the presence of this poison in the human body. Mathieu Orfila, who came to be known as the “Father of Forensic Toxicology”, developed techniques that made the identification of arsenic in the body, more reliable and accurate (
American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.; CBS News, n.d.).

The 19th century was also the period during which photography was first used to document crime scenes and evidence (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.), and take “mug-shots” of criminals. In about 1892, Francis Galton first described the basics of fingerprint analysis (CBS News, n.d.).

(iv)             20th Century:

The 20th Century ushered in more ground-breaking developments that serve as a backbone for the techniques used today. In 1901, Dr. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood can be classified into different groups (CBS News, n.d.).

In 1910, the first forensic lab was set up by Dr. Edmond Locard. Dr. Locard was a significant figure in the field of forensics. He formulated a principle known as ‘Locard’s Exchange Principle’ (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.), which stated that, “When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurs. The criminal either removes something from the crime scene or leaves something behind. Either way this exchange can link the criminal to the crime scene” (Baltimore County Public Schools, n.d.). This principle forms the basis of forensic investigation even today.

Later, in 1915, an Italian scientist named Leon Lattes, developed a method of identifying blood groups from dried bloodstains (CBS News, n.d.). The procedure is still used by some forensic investigators today, to test stains on the clothing or other possessions of suspects. During this period, Calvin Goddard developed the Comparison Microscope. This was a milestone in ballistics and firearm identification. It enabled the matching of fired bullets and bullet casings, to the specific firearm from which it was fired (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.).

Identification of blood at crime scenes was revolutionized with the discovery of Luminol in 1937, by Walter Specht, a German forensic scientist. He found that when a mixture of luminol and hydrogen peroxide is sprayed onto a surface, it will emit a bluish-green glow, in the case that there was blood present on that surface at some point of time. This is due to a chemical reaction between the luminol and hydrogen peroxide mixture with blood, which indicates its presence (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.).

In the 1970s, Roland Menzel, introduced the use of lasers to locate latent fingerprints (which are not directly visible to the naked eye). In 1985, Sir Alec Jefferys discovered that every person has unique DNA, like fingerprints, which was the basis of DNA profiling. This was yet another revolutionary development in forensics (CBS, n.d.).

In the late 20th Century, the FBI introduced the IAFIS, which is the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System. It is a fingerprint and criminal history database, operated by the FBI (U.S. Department of Justice, n.d.). Similarly, CODIS, the Combined DNA Index System, was a software developed to share DNA profiles with other labs (American College of Forensic Examiners, n.d.).

The developments that took place in the 19th and 20th Centuries, serve as a very strong support for the technologies that are used today. From a historical perspective, these developments brought about great changes in society in terms of justice and crime-fighting. Though the new technologies were still in their inception stages, they definitely induced a transition from the times when pure intuition was used to solve cases, to a time when actual evidence from crime scenes was beginning to be processed, to support the theories of investigators.

CURRENT SITUATION:

Present day forensic investigators analyse crime-scene evidence with the help of advanced technology, which has been slowly built up from past developments. I have narrowed down all the technology that is used today, to five categories, which I feel are most commonly used in the processing of evidence.
(i)     DNA Testing:

DNA testing can identify biological samples like: blood, saliva, fingernails, hairs, skin cells, mucus, earwax, urine and other such materials. Such samples can be lifted off clothing, toothbrushes, hair brushes, tissues, and so on (National Institute of Justice, 2012).

DNA testing involves the collection of samples from the crime scene and from suspects, and subjecting them to tests to determine whether they match or not. If the samples match, it serves as proof that a certain suspect was indeed present at the crime scene; if not, there is no such evidence placing him/her at the scene.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis, Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis, Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis, and Y-Chromosome analysis are some of the technologies used to analyse DNA samples from crime scenes (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs, 2009).

Once the DNA samples are tested and analysed, they can be compared with DNA profiles found on databases, such as CODIS (Combined DNA Index System). CODIS is used by the FBI, and utilizes computer software to search for matching DNA profiles which are generated via Short Tandem Repeat analysis. The DNA Identification Act (1994) authorises the use of this technology in the United States. CODIS has two indexes: the Convicted Offender Index and the Forensic Index, and it automatically searches these two indexes for matching profiles (U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs, 2009). Upon finding a match, it is possible to link DNA found at a crime scene, to a possible suspect.

(ii)   Fingerprinting:

With the help of present technology, fingerprints can be lifted off virtually any surface, for example, door handles, glass, blood smears, and even off dead bodies themselves. Some of the technologies used to lift fingerprints include Superglue Fuming, Magnetic Powder, Reflected Ultra-Violet Imaging System (RUVIS), Alternate Light Sources (ALS), and Polyvinyl-siloxane (gel products) (Gulick, 2008).

Once the prints have been lifted, analysing them involves a detailed examination of the ridges, and comparing various points between the prints in order to find a match. In the present, after the prints are lifted, they are usually scanned onto computers and compared with databases, such as the IAFIS (Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System). Such computer programs can automatically perform the analysis much faster, and produce a shortlist of similar prints from the database for further investigation. The shortlisted prints are then manually analysed by investigators, thereby helping to save time (Oracle Education Foundation, n.d.).

(iii) Trace Evidence Analysis:

Trace evidence is another important category of evidence that is collected from crime scenes. It includes materials such as hair, fibres, chemicals, drugs, unknown powders and liquids, gunshot residue, pollen, soil particles, debris, tire and shoe prints, and so on.

Trace evidence may provide a link between suspects and victims in case the same type of substance is found on both individuals.

Microscopic trace evidence may be analysed with the help of a variety of instruments such as the polarized light microscope, comparison microscope, micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, Visible Microspectrophotometer, Scanning Electron Microscope, and Pyrolysis Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer (Schwartz, n.d.).

Drag marks, shoe prints, tire tracks and other such evidence can be lifted and examined with the help of macro and micro casting devices and electrostatic lifting devices, and can then be compared with suspects and victims (Schwartz, n.d.).

Gunshot residue mainly consists of burned gun powder and can be lifted off various surfaces. It is analysed mainly with the help of wet chemical tests, namely the Modified Griess Test and the Sodium Rhodizinate Test. This information, along with other details such as that from blood spatter analysis, can determine the approximate distance between the victim and shooter (Schwartz, n.d.).

Even though the examination of trace evidence with these new methods is a modern development, it is still a very time consuming and tedious process.

(iv) Ballistics:

“Ballistics is the area of Forensic Science that deals with firearms; how they are used, why they are used and why they are used frequently in the practice of murder” (Claridge, 2013, para. 2).

Crime scenes sometimes provide evidence of the use of some sort of firearm, such as gunshot residue (at the scene and on the bodies of victims and suspects), bullet casings, burn marks on the victim, and maybe even the weapon itself. Guns have special features that enable their identification. Examination of gunshot wounds, and related evidence found at the crime scene, could enable the identification of the particular firearm used, and hence disclose information about possible shooters. Ballistics experts can identify the type of gun used, and the distance between the victim and shooter, by analysing various factors and physical evidence, as well as performing tests with similar weapons (Claridge, 2013).

(v)   Blood Spatter Analysis:

Blood spatter analysis is in a way, very similar to ballistics. Blood spatter analysis involves the study of the patters in which blood is shed at the crime scene. Such an investigation, could determine various particulars such as, the height of the suspect, type of weapon used, fatality of the blows, presence of objects or individuals that prevented blood from falling on to a particular surface, and so on.

Blood spatter is usually analysed at the scene, by experts, and also in forensic labs, by performing tests on dummies with weapons that could have possibly been used by the suspect.

Comparison between the Past and the Present:

While comparing the past and present technologies used in crime scene investigation, there is no doubt that the field of forensics has come a long way.
The past brought about some revolutionary discoveries and inventions that serve as a basis for the advanced technology that is in use today.
We can compare past and present technology based on 3 general stages of crime scene investigation:
(i) Documentation
(ii) Witness interrogation
(iii) Evidence collection and analysis

(i)                 Documentation:

In the past, documentation of the crime scene was probably not considered as important as solving the case itself. Documentation mainly relied on written information of investigators, and hence did not provide a very concrete report of the scene. It wasn’t till much later, when cameras were invented, that investigators started photographing the crime scene, as is done today.

(ii)               Witness interrogation:

Similar to documentation, in the past, statements of witnesses were written down and were the only form of proof. However, video and audio recordings provide much more certain evidence of statements made by witnesses today.

(iii)             Evidence collection and analysis:

Developments in this regard, are by-far the most ground breaking and revolutionary.

In the early days, there were no concrete methods of analysing DNA samples. Eventually the grouping of blood types, only enabled investigators to identify the blood group of the suspects, but did not go any further than that. Therefore, it did not help narrow down the possible suspects of a case to a great extent. However, the DNA testing technologies that are used today, have the ability to differentiate samples from one another, and compare them to databases, to pinpoint the particular individuals to whom the sample belongs. This is a more effective and accurate basis of linking a suspect to a crime.

In terms of fingerprinting, investigators would lift prints with the help of adhesive tape, in the past. Not only did this method restrict them from lifting prints off softer surfaces, but it also was a very tedious method, as the prints would have to be manually examined and compared to each other. Present day technology utilizes a variety of chemicals and lighting devices that can lift prints from virtually any surface. These prints are scanned onto a computer, and compared with fingerprint databases, to identify possible matches. Although this technology is time efficient and accurate, the use of advanced methods like the Reflected Ultra-Violet Imaging System, Alternative Light Sources, and Polyvinyl-Siloxane are rather expensive.

Trace evidence analysis in the past, was more of a superficial examination, in view of the lack of technology to perform an in-depth analysis of various substances found at the crime scene. Although, there were certain investigators who were able to solve cases on the basis of trace evidence, it was still not a reliable method of proving guilt. On the other hand, modern day technology provides various methods and instruments that can be used to analyse minute bits of evidence, to provide accurate results.

With regard to ballistics and blood spatter analysis, though there are technologies to aid investigators today, it still largely depends on the personal knowledge and expertise of the investigator. These two categories truly require the application of knowledge and as time progresses, the knowledge and experience of investigators will increase from past cases, enabling more accurate conclusions as to the identification of weapons or firearms. This is evident from the fact that experts today, can identify the type of weapon used, more easily than investigators in the past could.

Overall, I feel that forensic investigations in the past, largely relied on the intuition of investigators. In contrast, present-day theories regarding crimes must be backed up with concrete evidence and proof that has been thoroughly analysed; inconclusive evidence and intuitive theories will not suffice. Moreover, the techniques used in the past were tedious, time-consuming, and manual methods. Advances in technology have enabled the development of faster, more accurate, and automatic systems that can be used to process evidence.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS:

In the future, there will probably be "an increased focus on digital forensics and DNA analysis as other forensic specialties fall by the wayside. A move toward greater degrees of automation, the use of new technologies, and the trend toward smaller workforces have also been evident” (Waters, 2012, para. 3).

Technology today, is growing leaps and bounds in terms of communication devices; mobile phones, tablets, computers, and so on. I feel that the forensic industry is bound to integrate with Information and Communication Technology in the future, resulting in mobile devices to analyse evidence at the crime scene itself, instead of having to send it back to a forensic laboratory.

Taking into consideration, the enormous progress that DNA analysis has enabled investigators to make in various cases, the development of hand-held DNA analysers is definitely a possibility (Schiro, 2000). The devices could probably use a principle similar to that used in infrared photochemical breath testers (breathalyzers) that estimate the level of alcohol in a person’s blood. It could speed up the process of identifying various substances found at a crime scene, and who it belongs to. 

I think we are on the road to the development of such devices, since we already have “Rapid DNA” machines. Two companies, IntegenX and NetBio have introduced such machines in the United States. Based on samples introduced into the machine, it generates the DNA data required to identify individuals (Messmer, 2012).

These machines are mobile, and can be transported to the crime scene, however they are not hand held, leaving room for innovation.

Considering the time and effort involved in the analysis of trace evidence, there is a need for the development of faster and more efficient techniques and instruments to detect and analyse such materials, which is also possible in the future.

The full potential of such technology could be used more effectively, if police departments worldwide have up-to-date criminal databases with fingerprints and DNA samples from convicted criminals. This would enable more thorough investigations of possible suspects. However, this also poses a challenge, as not every police department in the world has adequate funding to make this possible.

I think the future of crime scene investigation lies in the area of hand-held devices, connected to worldwide criminal databases, to establish identities of people involved in a crime.

Like any other form of technology, I think developments in forensics, will reduce human involvement by a considerable extent, and leave the processing of evidence to electronic equipment. It is impossible to completely exclude humans, as human intelligence is still required to process crime scenes. Though there are extremely small chances of computers and other equipment making errors, there is still a need for people to go over the results, before confirming their validity.

Considering the progress that we have made from the past, to where we are today, it is reasonable to say, that it is extremely likely that we will see great advances in the field of forensics.

CONCLUSION:

In the past, the evidence from crime scenes that were looked into, was rather insubstantial, and incapable of recreating the entire crime scene. This is was due to the fact that the investigative techniques and procedures that were used, took up a lot of time and effort. There was no certainty that the suspect, whom the evidence pointed to, was in fact guilty. Therefore the lack of appropriate technology resulted in wrongful convictions, as well as the guilty walking free.

Discoveries and inventions by notable scientists and investigators in the 19th and 20th centuries are what started the transition to present-day technologies. Introductions to fingerprinting and DNA analysis by Francis Galton and Sir Alec Jeffrys respectively, and Locard’s Exchange Principle are only some of the milestones that form the foundation of today’s forensic technology.

Today, it is possible to analyse practically anything from a crime scene. It is truly mind-blowing as to how the smallest pieces of evidence can be linked to suspects. Advanced forensic technology has really helped improve the efficiency and speed of investigations, as well as the incarceration of criminals. Theories of investigators can now be backed up by clear-evidence, hence preventing innocent people from being convicted.

Judging from where we were, to where we have come today, it is evident that developments in forensic technology have changed the world by a great extent, and have revolutionized the way crime scenes are investigated.

However, this does not mean that we can completely rule out the intuition of investigators. In some cases, the evidence collected may not be able to tell a complete story, may be tampered with, or even damaged. Here, intuition plays a role in filling up the gaps, and providing the missing links. Therefore, we see that although advanced technology may reduce manual labour, there is still a need for the coexistence of human and technological intelligence.

We must also consider the fact that the knowledge of people is increasing. It is up to us, to apply this knowledge to serve good purposes, rather than to misuse it. Criminals also have access to this knowledge, and may start to erase their tracks after committing crimes, which will make it incredibly difficult to identify and subsequently incarcerate them. 

Present-day technology is very versatile and can perform a variety of functions; however there is still a problem of costs involved. The differences in funding, between police departments around the world, may result in inequalities in terms of access to such technology. Though this may pose a challenge at present, it opens the doors to innovation in the future. There are companies who have already started innovating, and developing equipment which are smaller, more convenient to use, and cheaper to obtain. It is a matter of time before such technology becomes more widespread.

In conclusion, there is no doubt that forensic technology has come a long way in improving the investigation of crime scenes, and further improvements can definitely be expected.

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[1] This paper was reviewed by Cheong Ke Ming and Zhang Yuxuan